Disruption of Order in King Lear and the Causes - 1416 Words

centerbDisorder in the Court/b/center br brOrder from disorder sprung. (Paradise Lost) br brA [kingdom] without order is a [kingdom] in chaos (Bartelby.com). In Shakespeares tragic play, King Lear, the audience witnesses to the devastation of a great kingdom. Disorder engulfs the land once Lear transfers his power to his daughters, but as the great American writer, A.C. Bradley said, The ultimate power in the tragic world is a moral order (Shakespearean Tragedy). By examining the concept of order versus disorder in the setting, plot, and the character King Lear, Bradleys idea of moral order is clearly demonstrated by the outcome of the play. br brBy removing a ‘degree or not acting according to the ‘natural†¦show more content†¦Despite the fact that immorality and disorder are quite dominant throughout the play, when nearing the denouement, moral order seems to be restored. br brAlthough the plot shows how order is disrupted and then restored, it is the characters that better personify Bradleys idea of moral order. The main character, Lear best exemplifies this idea. As the play proceeds, Regan and Goneril rise in status in the Kingdom, while Lears presence and authority as King becomes insignificant. This is an indication that order is disrupted because, traditionally the oldest person in the family is in control. Only when the King dies do his children take over his throne. Lears insignificance is shown in a conversation with Oswald, a servant to Goneril. br brLear: Who am I, sir? brOswald: My Ladys father. brLear: ‘My Ladys father! My lords knave! br(1, iv, 74-76) br brLear is greatly insulted by that comment, as he is the King of England, not just his daughters father. Oswalds comment suggests that Goneril has a higher rank than Lear. Lears insignificance is a result of his own actions. When he banished Cordelia and Kent, he made himself vulnerable to Goneril and Regans conspiracy, which was indicated in their conversation. Pray you let us hit together. If our father carry authority with such disposition as he bears, this last surrender of his willShow MoreRelated King Lear - Disruption Of Order In King Lear And The Causes Essay878 Words   |  4 Pages Shakespeares King Lear is a play which shows the consequences of one mans decisions. The audience follows the main character, Lear, as he makes decisions that disrupt order in his Kingdom. When Lear surrenders all his power and land to his daughters as a reward for their demonstration of love towards him, the breakdown on order in evident. Lears first mistake is to divide his Kingdom into three parts. A Kingdom is run best under one ruler as only one decision is made without contradiction. AnotherRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s King Lear1550 Words   |  7 PagesINTRODUCTION: By facilitating the growth of evil within William Shakespeare’s King Lear, it is evident that the tragedy’s protagonist, King Lear can be held accountable for his own victimization and ultimate downfall. The most notable aspects of this self-induced victimization include Lear’s own lack of practical wisdom and divergence from the natural order, combined with the neglect of kingship, that enables Lear as a tragic hero to create the conceptual framework in which the ulterior motives ofRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s King Lear Essay2262 Words   |  10 PagesShakespeare s King Lear is regarded to be one of his most successful piece of literature, published in the 17th century, in which he depicts a dramatic adaptation of relationships between parents and their children. Preceding the twentieth century, several critics have deemed King Lear as a classic tragedy and therefore labelling the character of Lear as a tragic hero. This is because much-like the ancient Greek legend of Oedipus, Lear s sense of pride is what consequently leads to his demiseRead MoreEssay on Parent/Child Relationships in Corialanus and King Lear2223 Words   |  9 Pagestooth it is To have a thankless child (Act 1 Scene 4 lines 285-6) These lines spoken by the eponymous hero of Shakespeares King Lear, sum up the main theme of the play. Lear is a king nearing the end of his reign, who decides to split his kingdom between his three daughters. In this play Shakespeare presents us with a patriarchal family. It would appear that Lear raised his daughter alone, just as Volumnia raises her son, Coriolanus alone. In the play Coriolanus we are presented with theRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare and Macbeth8813 Words   |  36 PagesThe Fall of Man The ancient Greek notion of tragedy concerned the fall of a great man, such as a king, from a position of superiority to a position of humility on account of his ambitious pride, or  hubris. To the Greeks, such arrogance in human behavior was punishable by terrible vengeance. The tragic hero was to be pitied in his fallen plight but not necessarily forgiven: Greek tragedy frequently has a bleak outcome. Christian drama, on the other hand, always offers a ray of hope; hence,  Macbeth  endsRead MoreEssay A Comparison of Macbeth and Hamlet2672 Words   |  11 Pagesthat merit and would stand the test of philosophic examination. And hence, also, there is an entire absence of comedy, nay, even of irony and philosophic contemplation in Macbeth,—the play being wholly and purely tragic. For the same cause, there are no reasonings of equivocal morality, which would have required a more leisurely state and a consequently greater activity of mind;—no sophistry of self-delusion,—except only that previously to the dreadful act, Macbeth mistranslatesRead MoreEssay on Shakespeares Macbeth and Kurosawas Throne of Blood2057 Words   |  9 Pagestranslated its story into a cinematic piece that captured not only the story, but the powerful imagery, and ideology behind the text. Both Shakespeare and Kurosawa write for their audience. Shakespeare wrote Macbeth for James I of England, a Scottish King, who was an ancestor of Banquo. Kurosawa wrote for a contemporary audience of 1950s Japan, setting his story in a culture that was known to them, as Shakespeare had done. Similar to the kabuki historical drama or jidai-mono, Throne of Blood basesRead MoreWho Goes with Fergus11452 Words   |  46 Pagesresponse to the previous comment, in my opinion I think that brazen cars is in reference to battle/warfare. Summary The poet asks who will follow King Fergus example and leave the cares of the world to know the wisdom of nature. He exhorts young men and women alike to leave off brooding over loves bitter mystery and to turn instead to the mysterious order of nature, over which Fergus rules. Analysis This short poem is full of mystery and complexity. It was James Joyces favorite poem, and figuresRead MoreErp Sap Research Paper46896 Words   |  188 Pagesupon previous discussions. The different phases of an implementation process are discussed with cases and examples. They are examined from various perspectives to create an understanding of the reasons ERP systems require organizational changes in order to be effective. FIGURE 1 Book Framework Enterprise Systems For Management Framework Chapter 1: Introduction to Enterprise Systems III xiv PREFACE I n addition to the introduction to enterprise systems in Chapter 1 , the book is

Education, Experience, And Certifications That Affect...

Introduction This paper will address three significant factors; education, experience, and certifications that affect people for employment in the Information Technology industry. Before entering the Information Technology industry, the person must have all three major factors; education, experience, and current certifications. A college degree along with experience and credible certifications is a necessity in becoming a marketable asset to be successful in the IT industry. Without having a certain amount of experience and possessing the proper certifications, it will be difficult to seek employment in the Information Technology industry. Whether an individual begins with either number of the three factors, eventually they must fulfill†¦show more content†¦Also, they’re both in agreement that one of the three factors cannot stand alone without having one of the other to compliment. Education Earning a degree in the Information Systems (IS) is an important phase in entering the Information Technology industry. By having some type of degree in the IS field will prepare a person for future employment with various businesses around the world. Possessing a college degree enhances the individual’s career portfolio when seeking employment in the Information Technology industry. In addition, it gives the person a competitive edge in the IT industry and with the hiring process. Earning some type of degree in the Information Technology industry does not necessarily free you from possessing other credentials to be competitive in the employment process. Having an education plays a key role in preparing for the future job market. With the advancement of technology teachers must become more educated and keep up to prepare their students for future employment. Teachers possessing the right skill sets and experiences can enhance the school’s curriculum to prepare for changing trends. In addition, teachers will gain knowledgeable insight on what is to be expected in their respective fields of study and the necessary skills to be successful by researching the job market within the IT industry. Researching the job market in their field will give them insight on what is. Continuing to research the job market,

Palestine vs. Israel Free Essays

Palestinians deserve to have peace after what had happened in Gaza, I mean, who would dare hurt the people and the earth itself. It’s causing agony to the Palestinians when they did nothing but willing to share, however the Hams were involved in payback towards the Israel’s which is probably a smart idea for them. Although, what the Hams did to get revenge was Just thoughtless of what they did because first they are unprepared to defend their area. We will write a custom essay sample on Palestine vs. Israel or any similar topic only for you Order Now And their area is beneath, down in the basement with no secure at all. What’s depressing of all is hearing and seeing innocent children get killed by a bomb that was not smart of the Israel’s. Recently, they shot a bomb at an elementary school where hundreds or thousands of children died and it was Just truly Especially for the littlest ones who are scared out of their wits! I can’t even imagine the danger that is going on and â€Å"if I were to† experience a â€Å"life or death† situation, it would be terrifying. Also, within my soul; I can feel the excruciating pain from the Palestinians because of the sympathy I have ND it’s as well as I should say that I AM one of THEM! What irks me the most are the people who are Just watching the torturous event happen which is dumb not do take a stand for what is obviously right and I honestly wish I can do something, but at age fifteen I appear to be too young (Yet, I did not say that I won’t do anything when clearly I will as I get older, but the simplest thing that I can do is write a heartfelt letter to the people of this world and for them to briefly be inspired by it as I will too) o do anything extraordinary by changing the Middle East into peace between Israel and Palestine. I do BELIEVE that I can definitely transform the negativity energy with a much positive aspect for the people who need It and deserve It. There will be a chance to spread the Word that Is needed to be HEARD In order to bring PEACE for our people In the Middle EAST of a Land that will soon be called (In my opinion) â€Å"Plasterer† as an official name. Everything Is possible If the World gathers together to unite!! How to cite Palestine vs. Israel, Papers Palestine vs. Israel Free Essays Palestine Vs. Israel Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of World War I. The empire was ruled under the Muslims. We will write a custom essay sample on Palestine vs. Israel or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Ottoman Empire was the most liberal state. Christians, Jews and Muslims all wanted this country because of their beliefs and customs. After World War I Palestine was separated and Palestine, for the first time became a country with designated borders and area. Palestinian Muslims should gain more control of the land because their faith on the land is designed for peace, they had control of the land first and they have more holy sites on the land. First, Muslims Islamic faith on the land that they want is designed for peace and divine justice. â€Å"When looking at the significance of Palestine within the Islamic faith and the central role it has played throughout Islamic history, the real nature of the conflict is a civilizational conflict waged between, on the one hand Islamic Civilization with its divinely inspired laws and mission to create on this earth the society of justice and freedom which has been ordained by God. †(pg:4). This shows that the Muslims only want their land because they want peace and freedom. They believe that if they get their land back they can live with freedom and they also believe that it will create peace among other religion. â€Å"The significance of Palestine in the Islamic faith is evident by the frequent references to it in both the Qur’an and the Ahadith of Prophet Muhammad. †(Pg: 2). The Qur’an specifically states that Islam is the religion of peace. The only thing Muslims wanted was to make peace and the only reason they want to keep the land is because it says in their Islamic faith that they should keep the land and try making peace and equality between humans. Second, the Muslims had control of the land first. It was the Ottoman Empire that took controlled after WWI and was in control for a really long time. â€Å"The authors argue that Palestine was under Muslim control for most of history. † (Pg:1). This shows that Muslims were controlling the land for a really long time and it was theirs because they ruled it first. If the Jews wanted the land really badly then they would have came to conquer the land a really long time ago. â€Å"The loss of Palestine in 1948 is second only to the downfall of the Islamic Caliphate. † (Pg:1). This proves that the Muslims were really anger that they took their land because it was their land first and they controlled it for such a long time. They didn’t themselves understand why the Jews would take the land after they ruled the land for so long. Lastly, the Muslims have a lot of holy sites in the land and it is their second holy city. †Palestine is second in significance to Muslims only to Islam’s holy cities of Mecca and Medina. † (Pg:1). This shows that when Muslims were controlling this land they had holy sites that Muslims went to pray and worship. These holy sites mean a lot to them and it even says that in the Qur’an. They had mosques and holy sites where many of the prophets were born. â€Å"The greatest significances of Palestine for the Muslims is that it contains Baitul-Maqdis, the holiest place in Islam. † (Pg:2) Baitul-Maqdis is one of the most important holy sites on the land; this is also why they should get the land back. Baitul-Maqdis was the center of Isra’ and Mi’raj of Prophet Muhammad and it was the second mosque established on Earth. Several verses in the Qur’an even says that Allah has blessed the land around the Baitul- Maqdis. Muslims Islamic faiths, controlling the land first and holy sites are the reasons why Palestinians should have the land back. I believe that their religion is based on peace and equality that they have every right to have their land back. I also believe that the Muslims were never harming the land or stopping the Jews to come visit there holy places so, then why shouldn’t the Muslims not gain control of the land? How to cite Palestine vs. Israel, Papers

Process Of Managing People Free Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Process Of Managing People. Answer: Introduction Organizational management is the process of managing people or resources in an organization. This process includes organizing, planning, leading and controlling the people or resources in an organization with the aim of achieving its final objectives (Goetsch Davis, 2014). The people from different country have different ways of managing its people or resources according to its culture or environment. The aim of this report is to conduct an interview to someone who has had a minimum of ten years of experience in a retail industry and has worked in India and America. The report will summarize the information gathered from the interview and reflect on his personal experience of working in the two countries. The report will also show the comparison and contrasting viewpoints of the retail industry of India and America and a note on human resource management, customers, ethics, political influence and economical factors. The Interview facts The interview has been taken to the person named Adesh Srivastav, who has worked in retail industry. This person has more than ten year experience in the retail industry and has worked in India and America. The interview process has been conducted by face-to-face meeting. The person was the manager in both the companies situated in India and America. This person has international work experience and the interview process has been done with forty-five minutes. The interviewer is the business student at Bow Valley College. Compare and Contrast the Human Resource Management in India and America The Human resource management (HRM) deals with the issues relating to the people in an organization such as, compensation, safety, benefits, setting standards for hiring and training, motivation and employees right in an organization (Hendry, 2012). However, there is difference in managing employees when the context or country is changed. The human resource management in retail industry in India has done by maintaining the proper functions of the HR. The recruitment process of the retail industry in India depends on the size of the organization or number of vacancies. The experienced person has told in the interview that as his organization is large, thus, the recruitment process is done through consultants. The organization has chosen the process of entrance test and personal interview. The human resource management in the retail industry in India had faced number of challenges regarding skilled workers, lower motivational level due to huge work pressure, and formal education in the retail management as there is lower number of talented and qualified workers (Sultana, 2014). According to him, there is lack of skilled workers in the retail industry in India. However, the organization where the chosen person was working offers occupational health and safety measures to its employees and had rewards, incentives and recognition facilities. Compare to the retail market of America, the industry is larger and has huge demand of work in the organization related to retailing. According to the interviewee, the retailing company in America has faced diverse workforce and has adequate experience workers in the company. There has not much difference in the selection or interview process for both the companies; however, group discussion is an important part in the interview process of the retailing company in America. The retailing company in America acknowledges the employees occupational health and safety measures and rewards its employees with cash. Compare and Contrast the Customers Satisfaction in India and America In Indian retail industry, customer satisfaction is an important factor; however, the chosen organization follows the ideology of customer satisfaction. The company in India focused on the transaction-specific customer satisfaction. This type of transaction-specific customer satisfaction is determined by comparing the performances and the expectations of each of the transaction. However, the Indian company viewed the customer satisfaction as individualistic cognitive and emotional reaction. The Indian company pays an importance to the customers satisfaction, as this is one of the basic criteria for business to run (Thomas, 2013). The retailing company in America also pays much attention to the customers satisfaction. The company pays importance on the factors such that store layout, cleanliness, staff courtesy, helpfulness, availability, website and call centre facility. These are all related to the customer satisfaction in the American retailing company (Theacsi.org, 2017). The American company has paid much attention to the advance facilities like website and call centre facility for satisfying the customers. Compare and Contrast the Ethical issues in India and America The retailing company in India follows some ethical standards that help the organization in decision-making. However, the ethical decision ensures the sense of order and justice in an organization. The retailing company in India followed strict norms of ethics and any person, neglecting the norms could be marked as violating the norms of the organization. The interviewee has told a number of ethical issues related occurred in the company, which includes fictitious pricing, false sales pitch deceptive advertisement (Iiste.org, 2017). The company imposed restriction on the morality of the organization. Another ethical issue, which the Indian company followed is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and was serious about the CSR. The American retailing company has also followed strict norms of ethics in the organizational workforce. The ethical consideration includes the CSR policy and other moral policies for this organization. It pays much importance to the corporate governance on the employees of the organization. The company maintained an internal system of work ethics that include the neglecting bribing practice, false sales or advertising (Patten Zhao, 2014). The company has organized ethics programs to create awareness about the companys ethical issue. It tracked records of the legal issues of the employees. Compare and Contrast the Political issues in India and America The interviewee has described the political factors that influence the organizational structure. The Indian government is federal form of government. The retail business in India has been affected by the multiple political factors, such as government policies and ideologies of different political parties. There are several taxes, which has been imposed and affected the retailing company in India. There are taxes like income tax, sales tax, service tax, which are imposed by the political government of India (Babatunde Adebisi, 2012). There are also tax payment systems imposed by the state government. However, as the free trade is allowed in India, business in all aspects became very easy free flowing for the organizations. The political factors like democracy, global policymaking and the government as the leading super power have influenced the business scenario of the organization in America. However, the political changes and existing government body influence the retailing business for both the countries (Gilens, 2012). Compare and Contrast the Economical issues in India and America As the economy of India is stable, the business situation is also stable here. The interviewee of the retailing industry has stated that. It is a developing country and it has growing market, however, retail industry has huge demand in India (Batra Juneja, 2013). The country has achieved maximum level of economic growth and registered a GDP of 5.07 trillion dollars in 2013 and in the next year, the growth has increased by 5%. The economic stability and growing economic environment has provided the wealthy growth for the retailing company in India. However, in the US the GDP is 16.760 trillion dollar. As the US is the largest economic country in the world (Gilens, 2012). Thus, business in US has some benefits. The retailing company has faced huge advantages while making business in US. Reflection The questions include the location of the industry and its impact on it, whether the companies from both the countries has addressed the safety management program for its employees, what are the CSR implications for both the companies and how the organizations would apply online business policy in retail industry. The interview report has helped to know about the business scenario of the retailing company in India and America where one is developing country and the other one is developed country. However, the surprising element in this report is to get information about the management skills in two different work cultures. Conclusion It can be concluded by stating that management skills are necessary for business operation in any industry. However, the retailing industry has specific features and characteristics that have been addressed in the context of India and America. Detailed study has been provided in respect of human resource, customers, ethics, politics and economics. The compare and contract procedure has acknowledged the close reading of the issue and the reflection has shown the subjective view point of the interviewer. References Babatunde, B. O., Adebisi, A. O. (2012). Strategic Environmental Scanning and Organization Performance in a Competitive Business Environment.Economic Insights-Trends Challenges,64(1). Batra, D. S., Juneja, D. (2013). M-Commerce in India: Emerging Issues.International Journal of Advanced Research in IT and Engineering,2(2), 54-65. Gilens, M. (2012).Affluence and influence: Economic inequality and political power in America. Princeton University Press. Goetsch, D. L., Davis, S. B. (2014). Quality management for organizational excellence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: pearson. Hendry, C. (2012). Human resource management. Routledge. Iiste.org. (2017).Cite a Website - Cite This For Me.Iiste.org. Retrieved 10 October 2017, from https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEDS/article/viewFile/235/121 Patten, D. M., Zhao, N. (2014, June). Standalone CSR reporting by US retail companies. In Accounting Forum (Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 132-144). Elsevier. Sultana, A. (2014). Human Resource Management in organized retail industry in India.Global Journal of Finance and Management,6(6), 491-496. Theacsi.org. (2017).The American Customer Satisfaction Index Specialty Retail Stores.Theacsi.org. Retrieved 10 October 2017, from https://www.theacsi.org/industries/retail/specialty Thomas, S. (2013). Linking customer loyalty to customer satisfaction and store image: a structural model for retail stores. Decision, 40(1-2), 15-25.

Leadership Styles free essay sample

Nursing Armon Copeland Chamberlain College of Nursing 351: Transitions to Professional Nursing Spring Term 2011 Introduction Leadership in the 21st century has been redefined. As leaders we provide the voucher and guidance to begin the journey, while the managers are the ones who drive the team to the destination. Leadership is something you know when you see it, but is very challenging to describe. Leadership development in the nursing profession is important because it directly impacts the care that is delivered to patients. It is critical that the entire senior leadership have the self-same vision or mental image of what the organization intends to aim for as structure, management and organization in terms of changes for a solid foundation. Leadership Leadership is a blend of personal characteristics, abilities, strategies, and circumstances that enable a leader to influence individuals and organizations to accomplish a goal. Although there is no single formula for becoming a successful leader, some common elements include self- confidence, courage, a clear vision of the goal and how to reach it, the ability to clearly communicate the goal as well as strong personal commitment, and the ability to inspire trust and respect among followers. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership Styles or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Leadership differs from management in that leadership is a combination of personal qualities and abilities whereas management is a process. Leaders are more likely to be effective when they use the management process to achieve goals. Managers are more effective when their actions demonstrate leadership qualities; thereby earning the respect and trust of those they manage (Hamilton, 1996). Styles of Leadership Transformational and Transactional leadership styles are two very different methods of leadership in the nursing profession. This paper will compare and contrast these two leadership styles and support that transformational leadership style encourages quality care, job fulfillment and improved patient outcomes. The traditional authoritarian style of leadership the top-down directive approach has largely been replaced with a more democratic and/or participative style, which involves such collaborative behaviors as consulting, discussing, cooperating, or negotiating. No one style is effective for all situations, however, so flexibility is important. For example, an authoritarian approach may be the most effective in dealing with acute situations when decisions must be made and implemented quickly. Rapid technological growth, increased diversity in the workforce, and growing complexity within organizations has led to changes in the way effective leadership is defined. Leadership researchers and theorists define good leadership as future-oriented rather than present-oriented and as fostering followers commitment and ability to contribute creatively to organizations (Eagly, 2007). Political scientist James McGregor Burns (1978) described this type of leadership as transformational leadership. Transformational leaders establish themselves as role models by gaining followers trust and confidence. They establish the organizations goals, plan how to achieve the goals, and innovate. As Eagly (2007) explains, Transformational leaders mentor and empower their subordinates and encourage them to develop their potential and thus to contribute more effectively to their organization. Researchers also describe a more conservative type of leadership as transactional leadership, in which leaders establish exchange relationships with their frontline employees. After clarifying objectives and subordinates responsibilities, transactional leaders reward those who meet objectives and correct them when they fail to meet objectives. The word politics is a loaded term, heavy with images of shady characters in smoke-filled rooms, wheeling, dealing, and often stealing. But politics is really a neutral term. According to Policy and Politics for Nurses, Politics means influencing, specifically, influences the allocation of scarce resources. Politics is a process by which one influences the decisions of others and exerts control over situations and events. It is a means to an end (Mason et al. , 2002). Becoming influential is something that can be learned, and it has as much to do with attitude as with behavior. Both aspects are necessary (Sullivan, 2004). Becoming influential includes such skills as understanding power and how to use it, communicating effectively, understanding the political process, and dealing with difficult people and situations. Conclusion Work hard, play by the rules, be nice, be polite, hold yourself accountable and you will get ahead. Our mothers were right, up to a point. Taking that advice, you do get ahead and your hard work is rewarded until you hit the glass ceiling. Or, as one physician called it, the gauze ceiling. Being the best at what you do is not enough to break through the gauze ceiling into positions of leadership. Its not enough to have clinical skills; you need political skills as well. Leaders make a difference in their world by influencing others to support the leaders vision or cause. To mak e a difference, you need political skills. Everything is political in the work environment, professional organization, community, and government. References Hamilton PM. (1996). Realities of Contemporary Nursing, 2nd ed. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. Eagley AH. (2007). Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions. Psychology of Women Quarterly 31:1–12. Mason DJ, Leavitt JK, Chaffee MW. (2002). Policy and Politics in Nursing and Healthcare, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. Sullivan EJ. (2004). Becoming Influential: A Guide for Nurses. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Leadership styles free essay sample â€Å"The most effective executives use a collection of distinct leadership styles, each in right measure, at just the right time. Such flexibility is tough to put into action, but it pays off in performance. And better yet, it can be learned† (Daniel Goleman). The objective of this paper is to understand the concept that lies behind leadership styles, to analyze their significance and their impact, which illuminates and contributes toward the success of organization and reflects on employee work related attitudes and behaviors. It is an attempt to highlight the core concepts of these styles that a leader must need to know and demonstrates one may use these styles according to the situational demand. Introduction Leaders are regularly involved with other people to decide how they will achieve organization’s vision. They need to motivate, influence, and coerce people so that they can achieve the organizational goals and objectives (Kotter, 2001). In response to changes scholars of leadership emphasized that effective leadership emerges from inspiring, motivating, and mentoring followers thus it provides interpersonal exchanges in organization by leaders and their followers (Graen Uhl-Bien, 1995; Spillane Camburn, 2006). We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership styles or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The significance of leadership styles and their impact play a vital role in shaping employees behavior. Leaders perform different roles in an organization so that they may guide their followers in a desired direction and hence they adopt different styles to cope up with the change, diversity, motivating and influencing their employees at the same time. To get better understanding of the core leadership styles we need to explore its origin and historical background. Most of researchers agreed that major leadership theories are espoused either on the trait based approach, leadership styles or contingent factors while discussing leadership and leaders. This review is based on leadership literature that mainly focuses on leadership styles and contingency (situational) theories. Leadership styles approach is originated from Ohio State University that began in 1945(Warrick, 1981). Chief contributors were Hemphill, Stogdill, Coons, Fleishman, Harris, and Burtt. The significant findings revealed consideration and initiating structures as important dimensions of leadership behavior in formal organizations. Later on University of Michigan followed former studies and found similar results. They investigated relationship between supervisory behavior and employee productivity and satisfaction. Past investigations and other theories in leadership resulted in identification of four leadership styles such as autocratic, laissez faire, human relation, and democratic leaders. Each of the style was explained by the dimensions of high and low performance. Later on a transitional theory between leadership styles theories and contingency theories named as Managerial Grid was developed by Blake and Mouton (Robert Rogers Blake Mouton, 1978). They described two basic aspects in leadership as concern for production and for the people too. That Managerial grid was comprised of five basic styles rated on it separately. They concluded that leadership styles research was so inconsistent in conceptualization of different styles and that their research provided a consistent approach (Robert R Blake Mouton, 1981) . Their research suggested that if a leader continuously changed styles, employees would be constantly confused in their attempts to predict and adjust to their leader’s behavior. So after getting deep understanding about the typical styles researchers formulated contingency approach that suggested different situations need different approaches to leadership styles. Burns gave another two important aspects named as Transformational and Transactional leadership styles. In his research he explained these two dimensions of leadership styles and argues that the leaders who use transformational style are tend to be very supportive and they engage their employees to improve their performance to provide better results and individually gave them feedback for such improvement. Transactional leaders usually involve their employees in the process to encourage and to give  mutual support in the form of rewards etc (Burns, 1978). Later on these concepts were refined and researchers built arguments to favor the importance of one style on another. According to Goleman, leadership styles can be distinguished such as coercive, affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, and coaching. He argued that these executives used these styles, but out of these six; four are having positive effect on climate and hence affect organization and employee’s performance too. He then defined each of these styles in correspondence to their impact on organization’s performance and employee’s behavior (Goleman, 2000). The significance of leadership styles and their impact play a vital role in shaping employees behavior, and it is known by few leaders who really understand the influence of their leadership style on their employees (Warrick, 1981). Effective leaders may use more than one style to delegate and that is based on the situation and demand that counts for it. Leaders set strategy, they create vision and mission; they build entire culture in that way. The styles appear to have a direct impact on the working atmosphere of a company, division, or team, and in return on its financial performance. If that impact is fruitful enough then organization easily attain its objective in a collective way. Past research indicates that leaders with the best results don’t rely on only one leadership style; they use multiple styles according to their needs and consequences (Goleman, 2000). Each of the leadership style describes different quality, characteristic, philosophy, and consequences associated with it. Organizational culture and leadership are thought to be highly related aspects of organizational life, because they serve similar functions, operate in similar ways, and have reciprocal influences on each other (Schein 2004; Schneider 1987; Trice and Beyer 1993). Researchers have identified six basic styles of leadership that influences the behavior of their employees. Each of the style has a distinct impact on employee’s behavior and hence affects organizational performance. Warrick defines the same by distinguishing it in to four categories of leaders such as autocratic, laissez faire, human relations, and democratic leaders. Other focused on transformational and transactional styles. Each of the style has its distinctive impact on employees’ behavior and determines specific consequences (Goleman, 2007; Warrick 1981). Significance of leadership styles Styles refer to the emphasis a person places on performance and people. Leadership styles can be identified through specific style characteristics (Warrick, 1981). Leadership style can be judged by the specific behaviors of leaders, and this behavior is adopted by the leader for many functions in organization (Casimir, 2001). They should be adapted to the particular demands of the situation, the particular requirements of the people involved and the particular challenges faced by organization. There are no doubt variables other than leadership styles that affect employees’ performance and satisfaction but understanding about leadership styles is quite significant to lead people better and in a dynamic way (Warrick, 1981). Leadership styles have strong relation with employees’ performance and hence create results in the form of positive outcomes if used intelligently. As per researchers, supportive and participative styles of leaders have a positive impact on satisfaction and performance of employees (Berson Avolio, 2004; Mondy, 2009). Whereas, instrumental styles of leadership (transactional and autocratic leadership) are found to be less associated with employees’ satisfaction (Bass Avolio, 1990). Leaders prepare organizations for change and diversity and help them to cope so they need to adopt the best style that fulfills their need of change and to compete globally. Leader’s styles may affect employee’s performance either in a positive or negative way by being supportive, fair, and encouraging, or unsupportive, inconsistent, and critical. Leadership styles can be identified by their specific characteristics, as per their leadership philosophy and by management skills in each of the leadership style that is distinct from one another (Warrick, 1981). As per researcher’s view the leaders who mastered authoritative, democratic affiliative and coaching styles they can create best business climate and performance (Goleman, 2007). Study of few executive styles and their impact on employees and organization Autocratic Style According to Warrick the leaders who have this style mainly focus on the high performance of the organization but they put low emphasis on people. Employee involvement is not considered trustworthy by those leaders. They rely on authoritative control, power, and manipulation to get the job done. Such kind of leaders assumes about the people as if they are lazy and undependable. So leader having that style is commanding and believes on strict control as he uses close supervision but employees feel stressed and uncomfortable while working under such kind of supervision (Van Vugt, Jepson, Hart, De Cremer, 2004). But under such command and control quality of work increases and hence productivity increases too. People are rewarded for the job well done through appraisals and punished for making mistakes. Laissez Faire Style These are the leaders who put low focus on the performance as well as they don’t pay attention to employees’ performance. They assume that it’s hard to control people so they try to resolve things by having view in mind that leader’s job is to get things done and that is more than enough for them. They keep low profile and try to stay out of trouble. It has lack of credibility, lowest employee productivity and low performance of organization is the consequence of this style. This leadership style is found to be positively related with role conflict, ambiguity, and conflicts with coworkers (Skogstad, Einarsen, Torsheim, Aasland, Hetland, 2007). The employees under such leaders are less creative and less confident about their skills. Such leaders avoid making decisions as much as possible (Warrick, 1981). Democratic Style They put high emphasis on the performance of organization and they involve their employee deliberately in achieving organizational goals and objectives and align these objectives that meet requirement of employee’s interest and their performance as well (Foels, Driskell, Mullen, Salas, 2000). They strive for creating an ideal environment and for well-organized and challenging workplace, they get the job done by motivating, empowering, managing groups and individuals to meet organizational as well as their personal objectives (Warrick, 1981). This style draws on people’s knowledge and skills, and creates a group commitment to the resulting goals. It works best when the direction the organization should take is unclear, and the leader needs to tap the collective wisdom of the group. Mr. Goleman warns that this consensus-building approach can be disastrous in times of crisis, when urgent events demand quick decisions. Coercive Style Coercive style demands immediate compliance. Leaders who have this style are normally authoritative. There is no welcome for any new ideas from employees. These leaders force their employees to get their tasks done by all means no matter whether they like it or nor but they are compelled to do it forcefully. It is the least effective style in most of the situations. Apparently it seems that it has only drawbacks but there can be certain situation when it becomes effective too if used masterfully. This style works when employees are given less value and can be replaced easily or when a kick start is required to turn around or for change (Barker, 2001). Authoritative Style Vibrant enthusiasm and clear vision are the hall marks of this style. The authoritative style is to be considered as the most effective one driving up the every aspect of the climate of an organization. The authoritative leader is visionary; he encourages and motivates his subordinates by making clear how much importance employee’s work carry and how it contributes toward the performance of the organization. People like to work with those leaders who give them importance and value in that way. It enhances the commitment level of employees to greater extent (Goleman, 2000). The employees feel encouraged and privileged. Because of the positive influence on subordinates it works for every situation if it suits to fulfill organization’s requirements. Affiliative Style This style emphasizes the importance of team work, and creates harmony in a group by connecting people to each other. Mr. Goleman argues this approach is particularly valuable â€Å"when trying to heighten team harmony, increase morale, improve communication or repair broken trust in an organization. † But he warns against using it alone, since its emphasis on group praise can allow poor performance to go uncorrected. Affiliative leaders are natural relationship builders as they try to create harmony and sense of belongingness by giving their feedback on regular basis to their employees that enhances the sense of recognition among employees. But then leader should see that extreme praise is not good all the times and it loses its sound impact too so he should employ this style intelligently with the combination of some other style (Fullan Ballew, 2001; Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Pacesetting Style As per researcher’s view it is the style in which leader try to foster high performance and sets high standards. This type of leader wants to get things done through excellence. It destroys the climate sometimes as well. Employee may feel that their leader don’t trust them as work becomes so much task oriented and less flexible. He or she is â€Å"obsessive about doing things better and faster, and asks the same of everyone. † But Mr. Goleman warns this style should be used sparingly, because it can undercut morale and make people feel as if they are failing. This style can be considered as leading by example and personal heroics. It is very effective for short span of time but can demoralize employees if used for longer time period (Spreier, Fontaine, Malloy, 2006). Coaching Style Coaching leaders are the ones who give courage to employees to get to know about their strengths and weaknesses and tie them to their personal and aspiration motives. It is very useful for longer professional development and mentoring purposes. Leaders drive their employees to rectify their mistakes in a constructive way. They are good at delegating effectively. They set agreements and challenging goals along with the continuous guidelines and feedback. This style helps a lot in cultivating employee’s abilities (Spreier et al. , 2006). It works better when employees are aware of their strength and weaknesses and want to seek more for outstanding performance as they feel that their leader have a lot of trust and faith on them so they like to face challenges and become more determined to take up well. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Styles Transactional leaders are those who are engaged with their employees in such a way that includes rewards and mutual support to incorporate outstanding performance of employees. It has two basic components one is contingent rewards and the other one is active and passive management by exception. One aspect shows that they attach rewards with the good and satisfactory performance to influence employees whereas active management by exception follows quick response to the mistakes and failures to meet the standards. Management by exception in passive means that these leaders wait until the problem resolved by itself and if it doesn’t get resolved and becomes severe they intervene at that time to resolve it (Bass, Avolio, Jung, Berson, 2003). Some of other researchers formulated their own measures of transactional and transformational leadership styles (Alimo-Metcalfe Alban-Metcalfe, 2005). Transformational Leaders have a great role in the success of an organization. Transformational leaders commit such behavior and practices that improves employee’s satisfaction with leader and employees perceptions about leader’s effectiveness(Howell Shamir, 2005; Judge Piccolo, 2004). The leaders who adopt this style gain the trust of his followers. They empower their employees and set targets, goals to produce effective outcomes in way that enhances employees’ capabilities too. Researchers exhibit four important dimensions of this style such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual simulation and individualized Consideration. All of these dimensions play a vital role in generating positive influence on employee performance and his commitment that leads to organizational performance (Avolio Bass, 2002). This style is very effective if rapid changes are occurring in organization thus it is having positive influence on employee’s performance sets a better direction for both employees and organization. From the above detailed discussion we may have a quick glimpse of these styles which relate to the organization performance and those as well which impacts on employee’s performance. Here few of them are summarized. Leadership styles Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire Transformational Transactional Coaching Employees’ performance Less focused More focused Less focused More focused More focused More focused Organizations’ performance More Focused More focused Less focused More focused Less focused More focused Here a conceptual model is developed. It is a simple framework which represents effective styles that are positively linked with the employees’ performance and are thought to have sound impact on organization’s productivity. Figure 1: A Conceptual Model of Leadership Styles and Their positive influence This model depicts the influence of key leadership styles on employee’s behavior. Implication of this model can be useful, if significant styles are to be explored which a leader may adopt to see sustainable performance and positive outcomes in an organization. An effective leader chooses the style according to the demand of the typical situation. He may shift from one style to another but that move should not be frequent as it can create difficulty in employee’s understanding about their leader’s attitude. Effective leaders are capable of using all leadership styles and they know when and where to use the appropriate one. Leader motivates his followers towards a common goal and then provides those required resources to accomplish that goal and inspires them to improve their knowledge, skills and abilities (Vigoda-Gadot, 2007). Literature illuminates the significance of leadership styles, the relationship of the leaders’ behavior and its effect on employees’ motivation toward the work are correlated with each other. If this relationship (among employees and their leader) is significant and directed positively then it contributes to the healthy organizational commitment (Bass Avolio, 1994; Rai Sinha, 2000). Organizational culture transforms well if there is sound collaboration and exchange of thoughts exists between supervisors and their subordinates. Researchers found that leadership styles have an impact on organizational culture as leader defines the cultural norms and values within the organization(Bass Riggio, 2006). When employees receive continuous feedback, motivation the feel recognized they contribute in the development of organization. Leaders consider the problems of subordinates and suggest the possible solutions, which motivate subordinates and enhance their commitment towards organizational goals and in turn help to increase organizational outcomes (Walumbwa, Lawler, Avolio, 2007). Discussion, reflection and implications Leader-follower relationship integrates together to produce desirable outcomes in an organization. The nature of such relationships and interactions is followed by the styles of the leaders which they pursue to achieve organizational goals and objectives in a meaningful way (Ahlquist Levi, 2011). Awareness about leadership styles and their outcomes is very important for successful leadership. With my trivial effort I tried to explore these styles by examining their pros cons and focused on those which are positively associated with employees and organizational performance. A style that facilitates trust and respect helps the leader to switch between skills with the changing situations. Warrick favors the argument that style projects special emphasis on performance and people which can be expressed in number of ways in different situations. Researchers proposed that situational factors contribute to the effectiveness of a certain type of leadership over the others. So these styles need to be utilized sensibly. Scholars of leadership suggested that effective leadership emerges from the behavior which a leader adopts as per given circumstances. Potential benefits of such behaviors can be attained by developing insight of leadership styles from diversified groups (Ayman Korabik, 2010). Leaders may need different styles and they may switch between different styles flexibly. They are sensitive to the impact they have on others. Goleman argued that the leaders who have mastered on authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles have best climate in the organization and enhance the performance level of employees and organization and then he puts more influence to expand leaders’ own style repertory (Goleman, 2007). Some others favored transformational leadership style as the most authentic one and argued that it is positively related with organizational culture and proposed that it contributes towards the development of strong culture (Schimmoeller, 2010). A few also favored democratic style as well when leader is uncertain to take corrective action and seeks help from able employees. So there is no final outcome that one may conclude any specific style to be considered as the best one. Different styles are best for different situations so an effective leader must know how to switch between styles in changing and diverse environment in order to attain best favorable outcomes for organization and people who work for it. Managers should recognize the impact of different leadership styles as these may affect organizational politics and eventually, formal performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (Vigoda-Gadot, 2007). Further quantitative research can be conducted to measure the impact of each of the style to get more empirical exploration regarding organization’s performance. It is very critical to adopt a unique way of leading in dynamic environment. Effective leaders are those who are not affected by the diversity, they formulate their own ways as per their need to establish cohesiveness among their employees and organization to get desirable outcomes and hence become role model for others. History tells us about so many leaders who set example for others but I consider prophet PBUH’s style as the best leadership style a true practice of HRD ever in the history and in future as well.a

10 Fascinating Facts About Ants

10 Fascinating Facts About Ants In many ways, ants can outwit, outlast, and outnumber humans. Their complex, cooperative societies enable them to survive and thrive in conditions that would challenge any individual. Here are 10 fascinating facts about ants that just might convince you that while you wouldnt welcome them to your next picnic, theyre still pretty amazing creatures. 1. Ants Have Super-Human Strength Ants can carry objects 50 times their own body weight in their jaws. Relative to their size, their muscles are thicker than those of larger animals- even humans. This ratio enables them to produce more force and carry larger objects. If you  had muscles in the proportions of ants, youd be able to heave a Hyundai over your head! 2. Soldier Ants Use their Heads to Plug Holes In certain ant species, the soldier ants have modified heads, shaped to match the nest entrance. They block access to the nest by sitting just inside the entrance, with their heads functioning like a cork in a bottle to keep intruders at bay. When a worker ant returns to the nest, it touches the soldier ants head to let the guard know it belongs to the colony. 3. Ants Can Form Symbiotic Relationship with Plants Ant plants, or myrmecophytes, are plants that have naturally occurring hollows in which ants can take shelter or feed. These cavities may be hollow thorns, stems, or even leaf petioles. The ants live in the hollows, feeding on sugary plant secretions or the excretions of sap-sucking insects. What does a plant get for providing such luxurious accommodations? The ants defend the host plant from herbivorous mammals and insects and may even prune away parasitic plants that attempt to grow on it. 4. The Total Biomass of Ants The Biomass of People How can this be? After all, ants are so tiny, and were so much bigger. That said, scientists estimate there are at least 1.5 million ants on the planet for every human being. Over 12,000 species of ants are known to exist, on every continent except Antarctica. Most live in tropical regions. A single acre of Amazon rainforest may be home to 3.5 million ants. 5. Ants Sometimes Herd Insects of Other Species Ants will do just about anything to get the sugary secretions of sap-sucking insects, such as aphids or leafhoppers. To keep the honeydew in close supply, some ants herd aphids, carrying the soft-bodied pests from plant to plant. Leafhoppers sometimes take advantage of this nurturing tendency in ants and leave their young to be raised by the ants. This allows the leafhoppers to raise another brood. 6. Some Ants Enslave Other Ants Quite a few ant species take captives from other ant species, forcing them to do chores for their own colony. Honeypot ants even enslave ants of the same species, taking individuals from foreign colonies to do their bidding. Polyergus queens, also known as Amazon ants, raid the colonies of unsuspecting Formica ants. The Amazon queen finds and kills the Formica queen, then enslaves the Formica workers. The slave workers help the usurping queen rear her own brood. When her Polyergus offspring reach adulthood, their sole purpose is to raid other Formica colonies and bring back their pupae, ensuring a steady supply of slave workers. 7. Ants Lived Alongside Dinosaurs Ants evolved some 130 million years ago during the early Cretaceous period. Most fossil evidence of insects is found in lumps of ancient amber, or fossilized plant resin. The oldest known ant fossil, a primitive and now extinct ant species named Sphercomyrma freyi, was found in Cliffwood Beach, New Jersey. Though that fossil only dates back 92 million years, another fossil ant that proved nearly as old has a clear lineage to present-day ants, which suggests a much longer evolutionary line than previously assumed. 8. Ants Started Farming Long Before Humans Fungus-farming ants began their agricultural ventures about 50 million years before humans thought to raise their own crops. The earliest evidence suggests ants began farming as early as 70 million years ago, in the early Tertiary period. Even more amazing, these ants used sophisticated horticultural techniques to enhance their crop yields, including secreting chemicals with antibiotic properties to inhibit mold growth and devising fertilization protocols using manure. 9. Ant Supercolonies Can Stretch Thousands of Miles Argentine ants, native to South America, now inhabit every continent except Antarctica due to accidental introductions. Each ant colony has a distinctive chemical profile that enables members of the group to recognize one another and alerts the colony to the presence of strangers. Scientists recently discovered that massive supercolonies in Europe, North America, and Japan all share the same chemical profile, meaning they are, in essence, a global supercolony of ants. 10. Scout Ants Lay Scent Trails to Guide Others to Food By following pheromone trails laid by scout ants from their colony, foraging ants can gather and store food efficiently. A scout ant first leaves the nest in search of food, wandering somewhat randomly until it discovers something edible. It then consumes some of the food and returns to the nest in a direct line. It seems scout ants can observe and recall visual cues that enable them to navigate quickly back to the nest. Along the return route, the scout ants leave a trail of pheromones- which are special scents they secrete- that guide their nestmates to the food. The foraging ants then follow the path designated by the scout ant, each one adding more scent to the trail to reinforce it for others. Worker ants continue walking back and forth along the trail until the food source is depleted.

Diddy - Dirty Money - Coming Home ft. Skylar Grey Essay

Diddy - Dirty Money - Coming Home ft. Skylar Grey - Essay Example It tells the story of a person who has made many mistakes in life and has under gone various difficulties in life, and at the end of the day, he realizes that he needs a fresh star to hi life. The person is thus left with the choice of going back home to rebuild his life and start all over a new. The song captures this troubled past of the singer when she sings, â€Å"Let the rain wash away all the pain of yesterday. I know my kingdom awaits and they have forgiven my mistakes.† This clearly brings out the major theme of the song as forgiveness and the need to move on after under going a turbulent period in ones life. The song also talks about repentance and the need to forgive past mistakes. This is illustrated in the song where the singer asks his children to forgive him for not being there for them when they needed him most. He asks them to forgive him as he acknowledges that he was wrong. He blames this on his fame and fortunes that have led him to develop an alternative personality that is expected of him as a superstar, and this leads him to forget of his role as a father and husband. This is illustrated in the song when he raps, â€Å"Its easy to be Puff, but its harder to be Sean. If the twins asked me why I did not marry their mom, how would I respond?† he thus acknowledges that a new day begins by a new dawn, and that it was time he returned home to his loved ones to make up for the lost time and the mistakes that he may have made when he was away. The singer thus recognizes that a house is not a home, and he thus chooses to go back to his family to create a home. The song is meant to give hope to someone who is depressed in alls situation he or she is going through. It gives encouragement to the suppressed and points out that help is coming so no should ever give in life. It also encourages people to overcome their problems and seek to become

Business Management of Organization Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Management of Organization - Assignment Example In order to respond to these challenges, managers are developing new institutional designs, which include multi-firm collaborative networks and self-managing teams (ASTD Press, 2006). Managers have come up with creative ways of thinking and addressing a firm’s management processes and strategies, encompassing new methods of talent management, performance management, ethical leadership, and entrepreneurship. This paper will seek to discuss about business management of an organization by looking into prospects like strengths of a future manager. Strengths as a Future Manager As a manager in the future, one must cultivate strengths that consist of the ability or position to find and capitalize on an employee’s unique characteristics. Generally, great managers revolve one guiding principle, which seeks to understand how to transform an employee’s unique traits or talent into satisfactory performance. This is so because, the way to success follows the ability to chang e unimaginable trait into a realistic action (Drucker, 2012). In addition, for one to become a successful manager in the future, he or she must possess strength of inspiring employees. Inspiration, according to business analysts, is a crucial yet a rare aspect of management. Strong managers are brilliant enough to spot the unique differences that separate certain employees from others and have the capability to lead via example (Cherry, Connor, & Earner-Sparks, 2011). Leading as an example act as an inspiration on the side of employees. Inspiration plays a pragmatic role in achieving the set goals of an organization. The ability to lead is an atypical thing as it is inborn. As such, becoming a strong and successful manager in the future requires distinct optimism and keenness. A strong manager should therefore harness deep-seated belief in his actions (ASTD Press, 2006). Business sociologists claim that one of the biggest fears of a human being is the fear of the future. In modern-d ay leadership, managers traffic in the future. Analysts point out that managers can overcome the fear of the future by building confidence within themselves and passing it in their followers by investing clarity. Future managers should focus on results, customers, teamwork, and advent decision making as well as problem solving (Mukherjee, 2005). Development Areas as a Future Manager Management development describes a structured process in which managers improve their competencies, knowledge, and/or skills through formal and/or informal learning systems with reference to the benefit of the individual and organizational performance. Areas where a future manager should resolve to develop include the field of experience, knowledge, career advancement, and decision-making process. In order to face future challenges as a manager, one should dedicate their time to develop skills and abilities suitable for leading other employees effectively (Cherry, Connor, & Earner-Sparks, 2011). Specific ally, when managers develop skills and abilities necessary for handling future challenges, existing pressures, and given assignments, organizations become successful. This happens because the leading managers have the relevant skills for executing tasks and responsibilities with minimum ease and time. This shows that managers should develop skills an

Medical uses of algae Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Medical uses of algae - Research Paper Example Their sexual organs are not found in protective coverings. In terms of physiology, they are basically autotrophic with all their materials from inorganic sources and photosynthetic producing complex carbon compounds from CO2 and light energy. Some algae are secondarily heterotrophic but retaining fundamental genetic affinities with their photosynthetic relatives. They include both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Algae both live and dead are being used by the humans. The fossil algal diatomite deposits in the shape of light but strong rocks are used as building materials and filtration media in water purification systems and swimming pools. Some fossil algae like Botryococcus are sources oil-rich deposits. Some other species of green algae are grown for obtaining bio chemicals for applications in medicine and cosmetics. The nuisance blue-green algae have beneficial uses especially Spirulina which is used as dietary supplement. The blue-green algae are better known as fresh water nuisance organisms which form as dense blooms affecting human activities through toxins generated by them, by clogging water courses and affecting recreational activities (Bellinger and Sigee). Alage has been described as organisms containing chlorophyll made up of one cell or grouped together in colonies or with many cells and at times joining together as simple tissues. Their sizes vary from unicellular of 3-10 um microns to giant kelps up to 70 mg long capable of growing 50 cm per day. They are found all over the earth in the sea, rivers, and lakes, also on soils and walls, in animal and plants (as symbionts-partners collaborating together) and it can just grow anywhere where light is available to conduct photosynthesis. Thus, alage are heterogeneous and identified in two major types: microalgae and microalgae. Microalgae grow in bentheic and littoral habitats and also in the ocean waters as Phytoplankton that comprises species such as diatoms, (bacillariophyta), dinoflagellates (dinophyt a), green and yellow-brown flagellates (Chlorophyta; prasino-phyta; prymnesiophyta; cryptophyta, chrysophyta and rhaphdiophyta) and blue-green algae (cyano-phyta) (Gamal 1). 2. Microalgae’s products and their biological activities Microalgal phyla provide chemical and pharmacological compounds besides bioactive compounds of marine resources back to compounds marine invertebrates which may vary from one compound to another but with a strong suggestion that dietary or symbiotic algae are one of the participants of these metabolites. For example, the blue-green algae, Lyngbhya majuscula is the source of aplysiatoxin found in sea hares which feed on this alga. Likewise, highly active anti tumour compounds, dollastatins 1 & 2 extracted from sea slugs are of blue-green algal origin. Further, eukaryotic algae and dinoflagellates metabolites are seen in shellfish and other invertebrates as toxins. Furthermore, Brevotoxins 3, ciguatoxins and dinophysiotoxins are examples of paralytic shellfish toxins (Gamal 2) Cyanophyta (blue-green algae or cyanobacterial) The blue-green algae’s structures resemble structural features of bacteria. They are classified because they contain

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles Reptiles are some of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some 300 million years ago. It is believed that the first species of snakes contained limbs which became more and more reduced through great periods of time, this phenomenon can be seen as a clear indicator just how evolution took place within a group of organisms. Today vestigial structures occur in certain serpent families such as Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they once possessed. Spurs which occur in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear example of vestigial structures that formed through time. Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the most important assemblage, as far as snakes are concerned. Squamates is a very diverse group of ectothermic (organisms that rely on their external environment to obtain the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and other processes crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of being elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders: Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards. The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 genera that consist of more than 2900 species. Snakes have one of the widest distributional ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the whole planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone there occurs 166 species and subspecies of snakes, 101 of these species have enlarged fangs to deliver venom of which only 15 are regarded as very dangerous and potentially fatal to man. This means that of all our snake species only 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The remainder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less than that found in bees and wasps. There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the lack of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the sense that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the body of the animal thus supposedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper jaw bones arent united/interconnected at snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw bones to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large prey items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic a nd serves as the binding factor between the jaws. Snakes fulfill a crucial role/function in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating rodent numbers and are good indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is being done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is being conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous system to mention but a few. Such is the complexity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind. Evolution that took place within the Class Reptilia Reptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians called Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no longer than chickens. (Carr,1963) Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified skin that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to move more easily on land, and an improved circulatory system ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals. In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic decline during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which altered a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same four have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (cro codilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not common until the late Cretaceous times about 65 million years ago. In order to classify snakes or other organisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2) Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no direct link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of different snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more new species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae (front fixed fang snakes generally cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a brightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp. This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive. Distinguising features of the suborder Ophidia All snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms. Snakes poses a forked tongue which can be retracted into a sheath (Figure 2.1) All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for locomotion and maintaining body shape. The lower jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw. Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake. The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung. Unlike lizards the tail cannot be regenerated. All snakes shed their skin. All snakes hatch from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs hatch outside the females body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live young). Classification of snakes Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Ophidia (Serpentes) Infraorders: -Alethinophidia -Scolecophidia The classification of snakes are based on different morphological structures The general morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the presence or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microscopic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes. The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very prominent in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent altogether in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its normal function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont get lost and can still be carried over through copulation with females. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carr ied through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males usually have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipenes of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur. Biology Hearing and Vision Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprising to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bus h except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, instead they possess a fixed transparent shield which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing. Sense of smell For this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered; picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly the same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite a few prey items such as: rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first. Shedding Shedding of skin depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into hiding during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. Cold Blooded (Ectothermic) and Hibernation All members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature (ÂÂ ± 30Â °C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This method demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the e nvironment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protection against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices. Reproduction Sexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will determine how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes several males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate. All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once mating has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again. Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands secrete a substance which surrounds the egg. The length of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months. As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous). Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of circumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs laid vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night. In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting of a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to slit open the eggshell thus freeing itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth. Egg mortality is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. Movement (Locomotion Speed) The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts it is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis. There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakes: Sepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go. Caterpillar These are usually heavy bodied snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward. Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst pushing forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth braches of trees. Snakes that make use of this type of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus. Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving. Scales Most people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes. Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale counts: Head scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking note of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is present. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose. Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloaca Subcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conical tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. Internal Anatomy of Snakes A snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feeding habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The concept is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the learning center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth. Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed. Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated behind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which excrete nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and a nal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a short distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed. Venom There is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essence venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes. In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are totally different entities. Venom has to be injected (circulatory system) Poison has to be ingested (swallowed) The functions of venom are numerous: Prevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion. Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured. Digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion. Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may contract from prey. As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened. There are three types of snake venom: Neurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae). Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.) Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae). Fangs (Dentition) All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower